Language and Gender (Unfinished) Notes for revision 2015

General overview revision studies (condensed and combined)

Research into the many possible relationships between language and gender is diverse. Most studies could be said to encompass work notionally housed within applied linguistics, conversational analysis, feminist media studies, gender studies, interactional sociolinguistics, and media studies. Methodologically, there is no single approach that could be said to give a definite explanation in relation to generalising gender specific language. This is mostly because socially, standards towards each gender worldwide are constantly shifting- for example: the rise in feminism/feminists. Discursive, post structural, experimental approaches, difference, deficient and dominant theories can all be seen to have actively contributed to the study of language and gender-producing and reproducing different and competing, political and theoretical assumptions about the way gender contributes towards language. Research in this area could be divided into several main areas of study: firstly, there is a sustained and wide interest in the many varieties of speech associated with a particular gender; secondly, there are many studies that focus on the locally situated and contextually specific ways in which gender can be bought into being/invoked/made accountable (etc.) to and for peoples everyday talk/textual interaction; and thirdly,  there is an interest in the 'social norms' and conventions that produced gendered language- A sociolect associated with a particular gender is sometimes called 'genderlect'. The study of language and gender has greatly developed since the 1970s. Prominent  theorists include Dale Spender, Pamela Fishman, Deborah Tannen, Zimmerman and West, Deborah Cameron, Robin Lakoff and others.

In 1975, Robin Lakoff identified a 'woman's register' which she argued served to maintain women's inferior role in society. Lakoff also stated that women tend to use linguistic forms that reflect and reinforce the subordinate role. These include tag questions, "weak" directives and question intonation, among others. However, theorists such as Pamela Fishman argue against Lakoff's theory and suggests that women frequently use tag questions as they are an effective method of beginning and maintaining conversations with males. Fishman also states that females use questions-primarily in the form of "isn't it?" and "could've been?"- to gain conversational power rather than lack conversational awareness. She claims that "questioning is required for when females are speaking with males as men do not often respond to a declarative statement or will respond minimally." By asking these tag questions, Fishman states that they are used mostly as an 'attention getting device.' And to discover if the conversational partner is listening. Therefore, by adding a question she realised that the speaker is inviting the listener to respond. Tag questions are frequently used to verify or confirm information- and not just by females. Although in a woman's language they may also be used to avoid strong statements which, in effect, may lead to conflict or misunderstanding with the conversational partner. With collective information from various studies, it's clear that men and women differ in their use of questions within conversations. For men, a question is usually a genuine request for information whilst for a woman, it can often be a rhetorical means of engaging the other's conversational contribution or of acquiring attention from other participants or peers who are conversationally involved, techniques associated with a collaborative approach to language use. Therefore, women use questions more frequently than men and for different purposes.

Deborah Tannen supports this via her theories which suggest that women use language primarily to make connections and reinforce intimacy and understanding, whilst males use it to preserve their independence and negotiate status. A primary example of this in close relation to questions/questioning would be Tannen's "information vs. feeling." Tannen suggests that men use speech to exchange information, whilst women use language to express and share feelings. Additionally, she suggests that whilst women tend to be indirect when seeking cooperation, and make suggestions rather than commands, men tend to use and are more comfortable dealing with explicit orders-(Orders vs. Proposals). Tannen's other theories include Independence vs. Intimacy; Conflict vs. Compromise; Status vs. Support and Advice vs. Understanding. All of these theories suggest the ways in which both genders communicate, think and behave differently linguistically. However, the trend within Tannen's theories suggest the primarily more dominant and 'strong' characteristics come through from the male gender. Within all her suggestions, women are perceived to be personally interrupted  by their emotions and men to 'push them to one side.' The idea that emotions in language and communication are so one sided suggests a shift in power within the genders; strongly towards men-resulting in an overall impression that because women are "more in touch with emotion" that they're susceptible to hurt, being labelled as the "nagging gender" because they're less likely to answer back and therefore are easily dominated. The dominant perception that is heavily shown throughout her theories may be supported by theorist and speaker Dale Spender. Spender suggests that "women are seen in society as 'weak' if they don't play their gender." Spender highlights that in patriarchal societies men control language and it works in their favour. And that this has an affect on the 'disobedient' women who fail to conform to their given inferior role and are labelled by society as abnormal, promiscuous or frigid if they stray from the female stereotype (linguistically).

Language and Gender Key Issues (unfinished)

1. Historical/Contemporary Changes.

Occupations/sematic non equivalences

In more than one 'Modern day workplace situation' there are nouns that denote workers in a given occupation. In some cases, they may seem gender-neutral such as a 'teacher' or a 'social worker'. Others may have gender-neutral denotations such as doctors, lawyers and nurses, but not a gender-neutral connotation for all speakers and listeners. Speakers will show this by using terms such as “woman doctor” or “male nurse” (doctor/nurse), distinguishing each gender from one another even if they share the same profession. "Listeners may not show it but you can test their expectations by statements or short narratives that allow for contradiction of assumptions (such as a story about a doctor or nurse depicted as the spouse of a man or woman, as appropriate." Another way of distinguishing between genders that has been a wide speculation for debate, is the way we use the sematic non equivalences that are traditionally associated with each gender depending on their social situation. "These are the pairs of terms that historically differentiated by sex alone, but which, over time, have gained different connotations (e.g. Of status or value) and in some cases  different denotations. Examples include:

• Mrs, Ms/Mr;
• Miss/Master, Mr;
• Mistress/master;
• Governess/governor;
• Spinster/bachelor;
• Tomboy/sissy;
• Lady/Lord;
• Lady/gentleman;
• Dame/knight;
• Bride/(bride)groom;
• Madam/sir;
• Queen/king;
• Matron/patron;
• Husband/wife;
• Author/authoress;
• Dog/bitch."

For example, "master" is historically known to be someone of a higher status, who has people working for him; "succumbing to his masters wishes." And is still nowadays used as an adjective when referring to skill or proficiency. Additionally, the term "mistress" also meant someone of a high status historically, but now is not widely used as a positive term, although meaning the same thing as master (Mistress of a skill) its more common connotation is "A woman, other than a mans wife, having sex with that man." However, the modern day terms; Headmaster and Headmistress are relatively neutral terms in the fact that they share the same job.

Your Artistry (Article)

They say that some people make art, whilst other individuals are art. That "Art should comfort the disturbed and disturb the comfortable." [Cesar Cruz/Banksy]. "To restrict the artist is a crime. It is to murder germinating life." [Egon Schiele]. Someone told me the other day that its been a long time since I had written poetry, since I created a picture with soft pastels or paints or since I sat and wrote a piece of my own. So i thought that I might have a try this evening, instead of aimlessly brooding over things so much that will not matter tomorrow anyway.

My boyfriend, categorically, is an artist. The inability to see the world just as it is, comes alongside the passion and appreciation he has for everything art. To pick up a pen and see the universe differently to everybody else is his gift. Occasionally, with some help from mild narcotics, which he claims assists with the concentration of the soul and the mind when participating in art based activities, he creates unique and individually stunning pieces on a day to day basis without the need of force from others. The line in which he carries across every page makes no sense to those who can't see what he is seeing at the given time, but is visually appealing with every aspect of the phrase. What saddens him most is for others, who can't seem to grasp the beauty of the topic, to shun a piece that has been delicately crafted throughout a number of days without a second thought. Whether it's a simple cinematographic composition, an undemanding illustration that requires minimum effort but a great understanding or a life drawing that has been composed using every visual shape exposed, his passion never fluctuates but stands alone with a somewhat proud stance and screams picturesqueness without too much boastfulness to be off putting. 

The way a person see's art is obviously going to be undeniably different from the next. From stunning paintings of the medieval era, to Shakespearian plays and modern day poetry; Some people get some forms, some people don't. Others may rasp in the romance of a novel constructed over decades by authors unknown; some may savour the eloquence of a marble statue, 9 feet tall and all forms of genitalia included; some may feel moved by a modern piece, so unelaborate yet garnished without elaboration it may be a question of whether it should be there or not. Either way, everybody, whether they know it or not, can see art in one way or another. And not just literally. Because, your handwriting, the way you jot notes down, the china patterns you admire, it all shows your artistry. Everything is a self portrait and everything is a personal sketch book. 

Language and Power (Text analysis)

Q) With reference to text CC and relevant ideas from language study, explore how language is used to assert power.

The way language is used to assert power is shown heavily throughout the entirety of text CC- a transcript of a speech (presumably a phone call) between two females. In this Text, Fairclough’s strategy is shown persistently as there is a clear dominant [participant J] who dominates the speech by her assumed and suggested tone of voice and bold on record strategy, as well as the way she approaches [participant M] in terms of flouting conversational strategies such as greetings, which immediately suggests an unequal encounter as this can sometimes be deemed as ‘socially rude’. Additionally the way that [P-J] flouts [P-M]’s greeting; “Maureen (.) hold on a mo” can be seen as a face threatening act as [P-M]’s status is automatically lowered. Additionally, there is more than one use of competitive overlap lead by [P-J]. The use of these competitive interruptions are a clear way to assert power and bring the conversational power back to [P-J] when it seems to be getting more equal between the pair. These competitive overlaps are often followed with a suggested aggressive tone from [P-J], who is then answered to by [P-M] who uses suggested nervous unvoiced paused and ‘stuttered’ fillers in response to her other party. Not only this but [P-M] also uses repair to stop herself from saying something that [P-J] might see as face threatening for herself which may cause conflict. For example; [P-M]:”We can’t go (.) unless you ask that guy you know (.) do you (.) can you?” [P-J]: “I don’t know (.) he’s like really busy (…)” Although both the participants use regular unvoiced pauses, the reason for use is obviously different as it seems as if [P-M] is using an unintentional negative face strategy as [P-j] is continuously bold on record, therefore concluding that [P-J]’s unvoiced pauses are possibly only used to intimidate [P-M]. Whilst [P-M]’s unvoiced pauses are possibly used because she feels intimidated and so has to think about her response before it is said to avoid any possible conflict. Throughout the Text, there is only one circumstance where [P-M] has more power. This is shown where [P-J] is waiting to hear whether [P-M] has “got the tickets?” and although [P-M] responds in such a way where [P-J] still has all the conversational power, there could’ve been several ways in which she could’ve responded, which could have changed the way in which the conversation was lead altogether. 

Grouping Task continued

The second set of groupings contain texts C and E. These two texts are both strong inclusions of dominant participants effecting non-fluency features and informal colloquial language in the text including the regularly used voiced/unvoiced pauses and simple conjunctions. To begin with, I looked at text C- a transcript of a magazine interview between two well-known celebrities. I explored the way in which each individual asked and answered questions in an informal structure; meaning there was seemingly no set structure. However it is clear that [person 2] was possibly the more dominant participant within the conversation as they not only began the interview but also answered the asked questions with the least hesitation and the least amount of fillers, which may mean that [person 2] was more prepared and therefore more confident in asking and answering questions directed at [person 1]. As well as this, [person 2] answered these questions in a polite positive face. This clearly follows Fairclough’s unequal encounters strategy and this strategy continues throughout. In terms of voiced and unvoiced pauses, fillers and colloquial use of language, the usage is regular throughout between both participants. But surprisingly is shown more in [person 1] who is ostensibly the interviewee. For example: Person 2: “Which number do I have then?” Person 1: “(laughs) well erm….” This use of the above non-fluency features may suggest that there is a dominant participant within the two individuals or it may suggest/define an age group in to which each participant falls. Therefore affecting their overall use of language and informal colloquialisms. As both celebrities share the same profession, it is less likely that this would affect the spoken language. However the length of time that each individual has been in the given industry is different, which may cause [person 1] to feel inferior to [person 2]. Which in turn, would affect the language used.  This is also shown heavily throughout text E- a transcript of a speech between two females. However, the use of language is significantly more competitive and shows a heavier use of dominant/non dominant strategy in comparison to Text C. Nevertheless, as shown in Text C, Fairclough’s strategy is definite again as there is a clear dominant [participant J] who leads the speech by her assumed and suggested tone of voice and the way she approaches [participant M]. Additionally, there is more than one use of competitive overlap lead by [P-J], which were not in Text C. These competitive overlaps are often followed with a suggested aggressive tone from [P-J], who is then answered to by [P-M] who uses suggested nervous unvoiced paused and ‘stuttered’ fillers in response to her other party. For example; [P-M]:”We can’t go (.) unless you ask that guy you know (.) do you (.) can you?” [P-J]: “I don’t know (.) he’s like really busy (…)” Although both the participants use regular unvoiced pauses, the reason for use is obviously different as it seems as if [P-M] is using an unintentional negative face strategy as [P-j] is continuously bold on record, therefore concluding that [P-J]’s unvoiced pauses are possibly only used to intimidate [P-M]. Whilst [P-M]’s unvoiced pauses are possibly used because she feels intimidated and so has to think about her response before it is said to avoid any possible conflict.

PRACTICE GROUPING TASK (from 3 texts extracted from previous lessons)

Texts A, B and D are all strong inclusions in the first group of persuasive language techniques I am going to explore. Text A is packaging for ‘Matchmakers’ by Quality Street; (a popular UK chocolate brand). The overall appearance of the text that is used on the packaging is immediately eye catching, which would instantaneously make potential buyers more persuaded to pick up the product than if the typography (and packaging) was not audacious or colourful. The linguistics used in this text includes informal adjectives to describe the product such as; “YUMMY” and “DELICIOUS” rather than the possible alternative of simply describing the product for what it is; [Honey comb flavour chocolate]. The use of these adjectives clearly accommodates to the consumers for this product which could possibly be anyone who is younger or perhaps has younger children as all the language included are commonly used adjectives and are easily readable. This is also shown in its mention of social networking opportunities for the audience to ‘Like on Facebook’, which is socially deemed as a younger and more modern thing to do. Additionally, the persistent use of capitalising the most ‘important’ persuasive language, allows the target buyers to be subconsciously persuaded to believe that the product is indefinitely all of the adjectives mentioned above. Both the language and the typography where it is used easily persuades the audience to buy the product because it is bold, informal and perceives itself as an “approachable and friendly” product for a large audience by using a certain type of tonal language choice over the entirety of the packaging. Text B is another packaging for a food brand ‘Jaffa Cakes’ by Mcvitie’s. This packaging uses a similar technique to Text A, in terms of bold typography and informal adjectives such as; “CRACKELY CHOCOLATE” and “THE SMASHING ORANGEY BIT” to perceive itself as a friendly and approachable product and to persuade the consumers to want to buy it for these mentioned traits. However, B uses a significantly less daring technique in the way it uses font. But this may be because the use of the word “ORIGINAL” persuades the audience to buy the product because it is a ‘classical’ and ‘original’ product in itself and a product that everyone knows about already. It may also be because the brand may be accommodating to a wider audience than text A. Therefore the typography needn’t be too brash or too big. As well as Text A, Text B includes a social networking option but instead uses a more communal phrase; “Join us at fb/jaffacakes.”  This may persuade the audience to actually ‘join them’ on a network because of its social and communal meaning which allows for the target audience to then again be wider by accommodating to more individuals, all of which have different interests. My last Text, Text D is a transcript (of a speech), which seemingly took place inside of a local newsagents between two people; the customer and the employee. In terms of persuasive language, person B (the employee) has to be able to persuade person A (the customer) to want to return and buy more produce. This is clearly shown throughout the transcript as person B is persistently friendly and uses persistent informal language to attempt to form a type of ‘acquaintance bond’ between both of them. It is especially noticeable when B says’ “I’m not getting much right today [laughs]” as this is of a significantly more relaxed tone than there would be if there was only silence or a demand from ether person. Additionally, person B is mostly using self-deprecating language to subconsciously make the person A feel more superior which could possible persuade him to return as they may feel like they’re getting good customer service as person B wants to meet their every need.

                   

The Stuff of Dreams (English CourseWork 2015)

THE STUFF OF DREAMS

“You were like a dream,

I wish I hadn’t slept through.
Within it I fell deeper,
Than your heart would care to let you”- Lang Leav

 

“I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exhaled, every hill and mountain shall be low, the rough places will be made straight and the glory of the lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it.” These are the notoriously celebrated words spoken with full justice only by Martin Luther King JR; The American pastor, activist, humanitarian, leader of the African-American civil rights movement and a dreamer. Everyone’s dreams are individual to their own mind and it’s how you interpret them that matters.

 

With so much of our time devoted to dreaming, it is not surprising that speakers, writers, scientists, philosophers, doctors and poets, have all endlessly applied themselves to the vast exploration of this fascinating, yet also undeniably dark side of human existence.

 

Scientifically speaking, dreams are a series of chemically induced images, emotions, ideas and perceptions that occur involuntarily in the unconscious mind during sleep. The purpose and content of dreaming has never been definitively understood, though they have been a subject of psychological and scientific speculation, as well as a subject of philosophical and religious interest at the time of discovery and discussion of dreams and dreaming throughout history. They have been described as “The royal road to the unconscious” by Sigmund Freud, a doctor in the nineteen hundreds. “The royal road” supposedly being a metaphor, used by doctors of the imaginative sort, for the journey of exhilarating twists and electrifying turns that reveal unconscious thoughts, feelings and perceptions of reality you never knew you possessed. This may not be an occurring fact when you wake from a dream that involves you participating in sporting events, stark naked with your ex-lover. However, the interpretations of these kinds of dreams are a specialist interest for psychoanalysts who believe that all dreams have a hidden meaning. Some may say that your previous partner being over exposed with you means that you can see right through them and their intentions. It may also foretell an unconscious longing for an illicit love affair or some scandalous thoughts. But, this is not scientifically proven. Dream analysis is only a personal interpretation based on gathered facts and statistics of a wide audience.

 

If dreams are the ‘Royal Road to the Unconscious’ then the route that we’re taking when we dream may not always be deemed as positive. When we dream we may be met by the deadliest highways of horrendous twists and turns leaving us heavily sweating and struggling to breathe. Or, they may be mysterious, bewildering and more often then you may assume: eye opening.

 

The history of dreaming dates back to the BC era, when ancient Greeks and The Egyptians were the leading force in teaching and education of subjects that nobody had explored before. The Egyptians analysed the main meaning behind dreams and the Greeks interpreted these theories into their own culture. Aristotle famously wrote: “A person awakes from sleep when digestion is complete”. - This is evidently not true, however many of us wake from sleep or dreaming when the worst possible scenario is about to occur. Psychoanalysts believe this is an unconscious decision made by our brain or our ‘Super Ego’ to stop us damaging our other unconscious processes. In other words; our brain stops us from dreaming any further if the mental images we’re creating would do damage to us emotionally or physically.

 

Despite the possibility of our mind emotionally damaging us through the form of mental images, some people enjoy dreaming so much that they participate in taking an extremely potent, illegal hallucinogenic drug called Dimethyltryptamine (otherwise known as DMT). This drug is an isolated and synthetic form of the similar chemical formed in our brains when we dream. It allows the individual to continue dreaming throughout the day without their brain waking up with unconscious decision.

 

I’m almost certain, that the majority of individuals would prefer not to actively participate in dreaming more than the given norm. And the past child in us all has had more than their fair share of obscure and temporarily mentally damaging dreams to last us an entire life time. I don’t dream, not the way I used to. Which I suppose is a part of getting older, isn’t it? Eventually, we’re all expected to linger aimlessly in retirement homes, singing old songs and staring as our televisions scream a white noise crackle. I used to think this was to do with the ticking biological clock, but I now realise it’s to do with our minds. As I look for dreams, I find myself dreaming less and less. But this dreaming, does it really have a meaning or is it just a desperate cling-on to escapism? There you are, trapped in a job you might hate, a tiny town with surrounding walls or perhaps, it’s the unemployment that stifles? The fact is, maybe you just don’t fit? So you make your own work unconsciously. You may daydream of the job you desire or dream about new fears, an appreciated unaccustomed effort, an added something extra- whether you do this asleep or awake- it is now part of your personality- and the dream you open and walk towards takes you apart from your greyish life- into a coloured one. It is, at the moment, a fantasy, but dreaming keeps your mind alive.

 

Sadly, dreams are often passed off as a simple one night occurrence or an unreachable aspiration, never to be seen again unless the wandering, sluggish mind accidently bumps into its old friend on a cold lonely night- the reoccurring dream. And what do you need more on a cold lonely night than to relive terrible memories that you swore you’d never revisit… But, one of the best ways to fully appreciate the strange fluidity of this unconscious state of mind is to remember the beautiful rarity of this hallucinogenic cinema of imagery that parades around your thoughts throughout the night. Picking up on things that your eyes had seen in the daytime but had passed off as something that needn’t be stored in the already crowded brain.  When you wake from a dream it’s easy to forget the unnatural bombardment of thoughts that travel through your head. Forgetting how easy it is for your brain to turn a park bench into a fully-fledged sleigh as you ride through the night in a land you’ve never been before. Dreaming truly is the land of the bizarre.